Succot and Historical Context

This article talks about:

• Sukkot's Agricultural Roots
• Temple Practices and Conflicts
• Eschatological Significance

-By Ovadiah ben Avraham-

As for Chag ha-matsot, chag ha-katsir and chag ha-asif, the first mention of these Feasts of YHWH appears in the book of Exodus. In the book of Exodus, we do not get specific dates for the holiday (in contrast to the book of Leviticus: 15th day, 7th month, etc.). Already in Exodus 12, the year seems to start in the springtime: rosh chodashim – chodesh ha-rishon, the head and first month. In chapter 23, the Feasts are described in an agricultural manner. No dates are given there, and the reason is individual or collective celebration of harvest-seasons. This start of the year, at the season of the barley in Aviv, nowadays called Nisan, corresponds to the new year of the kings (at least of Judah according to Chayim Tadmor). However, in chapter 34, the Feast of the final harvest is at the turn of the year; betzet (tkufat) ha-shanah. This could indicate a year which starts – at least agriculturally – in Tishrei (September/October), which seems also plausible. This Babylonian name is Akkadian (tašrītu) and means something like ‘beginning’ and became the name for the 1st (truly 7th) month in the Jewish calendar. Succot in Exodus thus only is described as “collecting your seeds from the field” and a feast of “the collection”, that is, the harvest. Already the notion of all males appearing three times before YHWH is also given in Exodus.

In the book of Leviticus, chapter 23, we read a fuller description of the Appointed Times. It is much more detailed, even with dates and sacrifices specified. The ‘shabbaton’, a new word, appears with Yom Terua, and it starts off with the 15th day of the month (with a lunar month this means at the full moon). Succot is seven days, with a holy convocation on the first day (that’s new information), and one – surprisingly – on the 8th day. A concluding remark is given in Leviticus 23:37, 38. But then another paragraph is written about Succot, wherein both the first day and the eighth are a shabbaton. On the first day, they take for themselves species, which creates for the sages an issue (whether “you shall to take” is the mitsva?). Also, to be seven days joyful before YHWH is spoken about, together with seven days of dwelling in booths (verse 42).

Leviticus points back to the memory of the Exodus, and as the Israelites were camping in tents, so the name could refer to the first station (Succot-city) on the journey or even allude to Jacob (building) in Genesis 33:17. It could refer also to the hospitality for any of the pilgrims, opening a ‘covering’ for those flocking into the city. 

In the book of Numbers (29) the sacrifices are listed. Significant are the 70 bulls understood as for the 70 nations. And there is also a list – the significance of which is not well understood – which diminished each day the number of bullocks offered. Yet this total (13 + 12 + 11 + 10 + 9 + 8 + 7) does add up to the number 70.

As for Deuteronomy, with a central place of worship at the Temple in Jerusalem, Succot isn’t yet a universal holiday. This ascent to Jerusalem isn’t just for the males. The rejoicing is with the residents, sons, daughters, and the widows. Only seven days are stated to be at the place, ‘He will choose,’ to which the people shouldn’t come empty-handed. 

These differences have practical impact. It makes a big difference whether to cook the Pesach-lamb on fire or boil it in water, though the book of Chronicles combines these descriptions. As for Succot, the instruction has been observed as we know since the time of Ezra/Nehemiah. Ezra had the five scrolls combined into one Torah (of Moses) so as to teach it! Here though we read about five sorts of plants, and about how the people go out to collect and build succa’s, every man on his roof and even in the courts of the House. They dwellt in them and had a great time. They also practiced the reading of Torah (as commanded in Deuteronomy) and shemeni atseret (the eight day). 

Yet in later times, the Feast becomes more universal and gets an eschatological flavor to it. This is seen in the book of Zachariah. As with Isaiah 2, these (later) prophets count on the nations to come to the mountain of God, to Jerusalem, in order to be taught His ways (= Torah). Chapter 14 of Zacheriah talks about a time of distress (with the feet of YHWH on the mount of Olives and the earthquake making a divide – see Acts 1:11, 12 for a parallel-text) followed by a time wherein the nations (e.g., Egypt) will come up. The punishment for not coming has to do with rain. This theme is further known in both the Bible (Joel 4:18, Isaiah 33, Psalm 36, Ezekiel 40, etc.) and within Chazal – rabbinic sources. In the second Temple period, the highest of joy was at the ceremony of the drawing of the water-libation from the spring of Shiloach. The other mentioning is the combination of Yom Terua, Yom ha-Kippurim and Shemeni Atseret in the book of Joel (2:15) which talks about the shofar, the fast, and an assembly (עצרה).

As we have seen, four single scrolls—Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy—mention the Harvest Feast of Succot with different nuances and from different points of view: sacrifices, number of days, what is commanded, etc. In later times, this celebration becomes a world-wide aliyah (to those remaining) to come year by year, to bow down before the King and to celebrate, beseeching His blessing. 

With regards to the priestly service, this was done by many families (as the Scriptures give a full list, year-round) and was not taken lightly. Yet there are accounts of wrong practices, even going back to the time of Hofni and Pinchas. When the Maccabees fought the Greeks and took over the Temple, the priesthood and afterward a ruling (Hellenistic) elite took over. Around the turn of the Era, the Pharisees were in favour with the people, but the Sadducees had the (ruling) authority in the Temple, and another group, the Essenes, even decided to leave the scene for reasons described below.

Basically, it came to a point where the common people, during the holiday of Succot, could enter the Temple court with the altar. They would do a procession with willows around the altar, even on Shabbat (indeed this is not from Torah but an invention/tradition). These practices caused tensions to rise. When a Tzadoki-Butsini folk spilled water, the people threw their etrogs at them, and when some Butsians/Essenes hid the willows under a stone in order not to desecrate Shabbat, the people found them and proceeded anyways. The common people would even walk between the altar and the temple which was usually not even allowed to some of the priest. They would (according to Alon), speak the ineffable name of God (השם המפורש) while singing from Psalm 118, Hodu l’YHWH ki tov, as they chanted or repeated after leaders ‘hoshia-na’. Ordinarily, the Father’s name would only have been uttered by the high-priest on Yom ha-Kippoerim (some 10 times), but later it was completely forbidden to pronounce. The rabbinical sources also speak about the vessels like the Table of Showbread and the Menorah (to the dislike of some Pharisees) being shown to the people. These practices were a desecration in the eyes of the Essenes as written in the Temple Scroll, likewise they thought the Pharisees profaned the Shabbat with circumcision on that day. Scholars report that they had a 364-day calendar which started on Wednesday and thus had no holiday that conflicted with Sabbath, and they had their own community in the desert away from the lawless ‘sons of darkness’. 

Why did all this happen? Basically, the Pharisees elevated the status of the common folks, whose favour they enjoyed. These commoners were impure because they were from the countryside, and they would eat non-sacred food as the priests would. The justification was that at this time ‘all of Israel were friends’ just as the Psalm says: ‘Jerusalem is (built) compacted together,’ meaning built in unity, and thus the barriers between the priests and the people were lifted.

Professor Knohl identified two schools of Priests. The School of Holiness (H) and Priestly (P), likened to the two schools of Rabbinic thought, Hillel and Shammai. One is the much more critical and aggressive, whereas the other was more lenient to outsiders, converts, and also fellow Jews. At the end of the day, one side was favoured over the other. While the books (including The Book) were becoming less of an authority, together with the disappearance of the Sadducees and the Qumranites, the tradition passed from teacher to talmid was firmly established and prevailed in what ultimately became rabbinic Judaism. 

The one school was strongly opposed to any interference of the people to the service of the God of Israel, which has a good basis of reasoning from the Hebrew Bible. What is holy ought not to be desecrated! The priests were set-apart for this duty, and the barriers between them were there for a reason. Whereas the other school, again, was more popular with the people and more simplistic to support their wishes to plea for rain (with willows and libation) and had given them an even closer look towards (and even inside of) the Temple. The seven days of the water-libation celebration (as well as the pouring of wine) was another part of tradition that resonated well with the people (especially farmers), and the great eight day truly became a theme of water and salvation through time, even connecting back the primordial water into the abyss, which God would have conquered by His saving act.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ovadiah has a degree in the Bible from Hebrew University in Jerusalem and is on staff at Netivyah.